PPARδ agonist is one of those subjects where the details matter more than the headlines. This page pulls together the background, the mechanisms, and the practical points readers ask about most.
Last reviewed on 2026-08-01. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Clinical development stopped after rodent studies showed tumors at multiple sites. Whether those findings predict human cancer risk remains an open question, but they led sponsors to discontinue programs. Human safety data are limited to small, short-term studies that were not designed to assess cancer risk. Reported effects in those studies included changes in blood lipids, but the evidence is insufficient for medical use. Long-term consequences of nonmedical use are not well characterized. Questions about dose, duration, and individual susceptibility remain unresolved.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, an investigational compound developed in the 1990s for metabolic conditions. It acts as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, a nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. The compound is frequently mislabeled as a selective androgen receptor modulator, or SARM, but its molecular target is different. GW501516 reached early clinical testing before development was discontinued. It has no approved therapeutic use in any country. The name cardarine is not a formal international nonproprietary name.
Published literature on cardarine includes in vitro assays, rodent experiments, and a small number of human studies. Reports describe effects on exercise capacity and lipid metabolism in animals, while human evidence is sparse. Many online descriptions present the compound as a proven endurance aid, a claim not supported by regulatory approval or large clinical trials. Analytical studies focus on identifying the parent compound and its metabolites in biological samples. Important uncertainties include species differences, dose-response relationships, and the relevance of rodent tumor findings to humans.
Cardarine is the common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied as a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonist. Researchers developed it to explore treatments for lipid disorders and metabolic conditions. It is not an approved medicine in any country. Early clinical work examined changes in HDL cholesterol and triglycerides, but development was discontinued after animal studies raised concerns about cancer. The compound remains available as a research chemical and appears in discussions of performance enhancement.
At the molecular level, GW501516 binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription. Activation shifts expression of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation, energy expenditure, and lipid transport in skeletal muscle and liver. Animal studies report increased endurance and altered lipid profiles after exposure. Human data are limited to small trials and do not establish long-term safety or efficacy. PPARδ also has roles in cell proliferation, so the relationship between activation and cancer risk remains an open question.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Common synonyms | GW501516; GW-1516; endurobol | GW501516 is the research code |
| Drug class | PPARδ agonist | Not a selective androgen receptor modulator |
| Molecular formula | C21H18F3NO3S2 | Established chemical formula |
| Molar mass | 453.5 g/mol | Calculated from the formula |
| Regulatory status | Prohibited in sport; not approved as medicine | Status varies by country |
== Post-World-War-II life and work == In 1947, aged 31, Crick began studying biology and became part of an important migration of physical scientists into biological research. This migration was made possible by the newly won influence of physicists such as Sir John Randall, who had helped win the war with inventions such as radar. Crick had to adjust from the "elegance and deep simplicity" of physics to the "elaborate chemical mechanisms that natural selection had evolved over billions of years." He described this transition as, "almost as if one had to be born again". According to Crick, the experience of learning physics had taught him something important—hubris—and the conviction that since physics was already a success, great advances should also be possible in other sciences such as biology. Crick felt that this attitude encouraged him to be more daring than typical biologists who tended to concern themselves with the daunting problems of biology and not the past successes of physics. For the better part of two years, Crick worked on the physical properties of cytoplasm at Cambridge's Strangeways Research Laboratory, headed by Honor Bridget Fell, with a Medical Research Council studentship, until he joined Max Perutz and John Kendrew at the Cavendish Laboratory. The Cavendish Laboratory at Cambridge was under the general direction of Sir Lawrence Bragg, who had won the Nobel Prize in 1915 at the age of 25.
At the Game Developers Conference in March 2015, Valve and Taiwanese electronics company HTC unveiled SteamVR and the HTC Vive—a virtual reality platform and a virtual reality headset. The platform would be distinguished by its "Lighthouse" motion tracking system, where sensors on the headset and its included motion controllers read the position of two base station devices mounted in the play area. This would allow for "room-scale" VR experiences, where the player would not be required to remain in a stationary position in front of a camera and would be able to freely walk around the space. In November 2017, Microsoft added beta support for the SteamVR service for Windows Mixed Reality headsets. In June 2019, Valve released its own VR headset, known as the Valve Index, positioned as a higher-end device with wider field of view and higher refresh rate. They were accompanied by updated motion controllers, which are strapped against the user's palms and have sensors to detect input pressure and individual fingers. In November 2025, Valve announced the Steam Frame, a standalone VR headset.
Growth hormone-releasing peptide 6 (GHRP-6) (developmental code name SKF-110679), also known as growth hormone-releasing hexapeptide, is one of several synthetic met-enkephalin analogues that include unnatural D-amino acids, were developed for their growth hormone-releasing activity and are called growth hormone secretagogues. They lack opioid activity but are potent stimulators of growth hormone (GH) release. These secretagogues are distinct from growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) in that they share no sequence relation and derive their function through activation of a completely different receptor. This receptor was originally called the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR), but due to subsequent discoveries, the hormone ghrelin is now considered the receptor's natural endogenous ligand, and it has been renamed as the ghrelin receptor. Therefore, these GHSR agonists act as synthetic ghrelin mimetics. It has been discovered that when GHRP-6 and insulin are administered simultaneously, GH response to GHRP-6 is increased (1). However, the consumption of carbohydrates and/or dietary fats, around the administration window of GH secretagogues significantly blunts the GH release. A recent study in normal mice showed significant differences in body composition, muscle growth, glucose metabolism, memory and cardiac function in the mice being administered the GHRP-6 (2). There are still many questions regarding this fairly new compound.
== Terminology == Scottish law professor James Lorimer is credited with coining the term "international organization" in an 1871 article in the Revue de Droit International et de Legislation Compare. Lorimer used the term frequently in his 2-volume Institutes of the Law of Nations (1883, 1884). Other early uses of the term were by law professor Walther Schucking in works published in 1907, 1908 and 1909, and by political science professor Paul S. Reinsch in 1911. In 1935, Pitman B. Potter defined international organization as "an association or union of nations established or recognized by them for the purpose of realizing a common end". He distinguished between bilateral and multilateral organizations on one end and customary or conventional organizations on the other end. In his 1922 book An Introduction to the Study of International Organization, Potter argued that international organization was distinct from "international intercourse" (all relations between states), "international law" (which lacks enforcement) and world government. International Organizations are sometimes referred to as intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), to clarify the distinction from international non-governmental organizations (INGOs), which are non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that operate internationally. These include international nonprofit organizations such as the World Organization of the Scout Movement, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), and Médecins Sans Frontières, as well as lobby groups that represent the interests of multinational corporations.
Freedom from hunger and thirst Freedom from discomfort Freedom from pain, disease, or injury Freedom to express normal behaviour Freedom from fear and distress The controversial issue in aquaculture is whether fish and farmed marine invertebrates are actually sentient, or have the perception and awareness to experience suffering. Although no evidence of this has been found in marine invertebrates, recent studies conclude that fish do have the necessary receptors (nociceptors) to sense noxious stimuli and so are likely to experience states of pain, fear and stress. Consequently, welfare in aquaculture is directed at vertebrates, finfish in particular.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Discovery == The first descriptions of the MHC were made by British immunologist Peter Gorer in 1936. MHC genes were first identified in inbred mice strains. Clarence Little transplanted tumors across different strains and found rejection of transplanted tumors according to strains of host versus donor. George Snell selectively bred two mouse strains, attained a new strain nearly identical to one of the progenitor strains, but differing crucially in histocompatibility—that is, tissue compatibility upon transplantation—and thereupon identified an MHC locus. Later Jean Dausset demonstrated the existence of MHC genes in humans and described the first human leucocyte antigen, the protein which we call now HLA-A2. Some years later Baruj Benacerraf showed that polymorphic MHC genes not only determine an individual's unique constitution of antigens but also regulate the interaction among the various cells of the immunological system. These three scientists have been awarded the 1980 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their discoveries concerning "genetically determined structures on the cell surface that regulate immunological reactions". The first fully sequenced and annotated MHC was published for humans in 1999 by a consortium of sequencing centers from the UK, USA and Japan in Nature. It was a "virtual MHC" since it was a mosaic from different individuals. A much shorter MHC locus from chickens was published in the same issue of Nature. Many other species have been sequenced and the evolution of the MHC was studied, e.g.
After graduating in 1953 from the University of Malaya, Mahathir began his housemanship at Penang General Hospital. In 1954, he was sent to Alor Setar General Hospital before being posted to government clinics in Langkawi, Jitra, and Perlis. During his time in Langkawi in 1955, Mahathir was the island's first stationed doctor, witnessing its underdeveloped state—a memory that later influenced his efforts to transform it into a major tourist destination when he became prime minister. Reflecting on his early career, Mahathir said he prioritised work over salary, starting with MYR 400.00 as a medical officer before a promotion raised it to MYR 770.00. He then resigned to open his private practice, named "Maha Klinik" (Maha Clinic), while his wife worked as a government doctor for 25 years. Maha Klinik was the first privately owned clinic established by a Malay in Malaysia. Mahathir acquired the reputation of being a caring doctor, willing to make house calls at any hour, trudging across rice fields in the dark to treat patients. If they could not afford his fee, they settled by installments or paid what they had. He was the town's first Malay physician and a successful one. He built a large house and employed a Chinese man to chauffeur him in his Pontiac Catalina (most chauffeurs at the time were Malay). Mahathir and Siti Hasmah were also involved in welfare and public health activities.
== Uses == Fritillaria extracts are used in traditional Chinese medicine under the name chuan bei mu, and in Latin, bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae. The bulbs of Fritillaria roylei have been used as antipyretics and expectorants. Lilium bulbs, particularly Lanzhou lily (Lilium davidii) are used as food in China and other parts of Asia. Calochortus bulbs were eaten by Native Americans and as a famine food by Mormon settlers. During World War II, starvation conditions in the Netherlands (Hongerwinter, hunger winter 1944) led to Tulipa bulbs being used as food. Other members of the family used for food include Clintonia (leaves), Medeola (roots), Erythronium (corms), and Fritillaria (bulbs).
Low levels of glycogen branching enzyme leads to a condition known as glycogen-branching enzyme deficiency. This condition is caused by a mutation of the GBE1 gene responsible for producing the glycogen branching enzyme. Subsequently, glycogen molecules are produced with few branches, which greatly decreases the number of nonreducing ends, drastically slowing the rate at which the molecule can be synthesized or broken down. This causes low levels of muscle glycogen that is very resistant to amylase. This disease is usually seen in Quarter Horse foals and is fatal.
In contrast to product requirements or other laws that hinder market access, the Court of Justice developed a presumption that "selling arrangements" would be presumed to not fall into TFEU article 34, if they applied equally to all sellers, and affected them in the same manner in fact. In Keck and Mithouard two importers claimed that their prosecution under a French competition law, which prevented them selling Picon beer under wholesale price, was unlawful. The aim of the law was to prevent cut throat competition, not to hinder trade. The Court of Justice held, as "in law and in fact" it was an equally applicable "selling arrangement" (not something that alters a product's content) it was outside the scope of article 34, and so did not need to be justified. Selling arrangements can be held to have an unequal effect "in fact" particularly where traders from another member state are seeking to break into the market, but there are restrictions on advertising and marketing. In Konsumentombudsmannen v De Agostini the Court of Justice reviewed Swedish bans on advertising to children under age 12, and misleading commercials for skin care products. While the bans have remained (justifiable under article 36 or as a mandatory requirement) the Court emphasised that complete marketing bans could be disproportionate if advertising were "the only effective form of promotion enabling [a trader] to penetrate" the market.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
In blood serum, the content of nitrogenous substances such as urea and creatinine (uremia or azotemia) and phosphate (hyperphosphatemia). The increased phosphate concentration is the result of the reduced glomerular filtration rate. Among other things, fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF-23) is involved here, which is more sensitive than the phosphate level in the event of an incipient disorder. The potassium content is usually reduced (hypokalemia), but can also be increased—the reverse is true for the sodium content. If the cause of the kidney disease lies in the renal corpuscles, albumin deficiency (hypalbuminemia) and excess cholesterol (hypercholesterolemia) also occur. The determination of cystatin C is not evaluated for cats, this protein can also be elevated in cats with hyperthyroidism or with glucocorticoids and drop sharply for several hours after food intake. Recent studies suggest that symmetric dimethylarginine (SDMA) is a suitable marker for renal function in cats. The SDMA concentration in serum shows close correlations with the glomerular filtration rate and the creatinine concentration. It can already detect a 40% loss of kidney function, i.e. before there is an increase in creatinine in the blood. The most sensitive method of kidney function diagnostics is the direct determination of the glomerular filtration rate via the clearance, which is already reduced in chronic kidney disease before azotemia occurs. Various substances have been evaluated for cats, the most practical being creatinine and iohexol.
The 3rd phase covers a period from the mid-6th century CE to the early 7th century CE. Carbon testing from this period gave dates ranging from 545 +/-75 CE to 685 +/-65 CE (i.e. a maximum range of 470–750 CE). Maya Cave (n.224) is one of the famous caves from this period. Historically, the paintings of this period seem to correspond to the Turk expansion, following their uprising against the Rouran Khaganate in 552 and their subsequent territorial expansion. This can also be seen the style of armour of some of the soldiers in the murals, especially with their pear-shaped helmets. Vivid colors are used, with great contrast, sometimes quite unnaturally and in a garish manner. A lot of lapis lazuli blue is incorporated in the palette of this artist. Skin color or hair color are often quite unnatural. Backgrounds often have plenty of flowers, fruits or leaves. Ornaments are often extravagant. Again, no East-Asian influence is visible in these paintings.
This money was used for improvements and security enhancements at research and storage facilities. Safety of nuclear facilities in Russia has been significantly improved since the stabilization of political and economical turmoil of the early 1990s. For example, in 1993 there were 29 incidents ranking above level 1 on the International Nuclear Event Scale, and this number dropped under four per year in 1995–2003. The number of employees receiving annual radiation doses above 20 mSv, which is equivalent to a single full-body CT scan, saw a strong decline around 2000. In November 2015, the Russian government approved a federal program for nuclear and radiation safety for 2016 to 2030 with a budget of 562 billion rubles (ca. 8 billion USD). Its key issue is "the deferred liabilities accumulated during the 70 years of the nuclear industry, particularly during the time of the Soviet Union". About 73% of the budget will be spent on decommissioning aged and obsolete nuclear reactors and nuclear facilities, especially those involved in state defense programs; 20% will go in processing and disposal of nuclear fuel and radioactive waste, and 5% into monitoring and ensuring of nuclear and radiation safety.
Neprilysin is also associated with other biochemical processes, and is particularly highly expressed in kidney and lung tissues. Inhibitors have been designed with the aim of developing analgesic and antihypertensive agents that act by preventing neprilysin's activity against signaling peptides such as enkephalins, substance P, endothelin, and atrial natriuretic peptide. Associations have been observed between neprilysin expression and various types of cancer; however, the relationship between neprilysin expression and carcinogenesis remains obscure. In cancer biomarker studies, the neprilysin gene is often referred to as CD10 or CALLA. In some types of cancer, such as metastatic carcinoma and some advanced melanomas, neprilysin is overexpressed; in other types, most notably lung cancers, neprilysin is downregulated, and thus unable to modulate the pro-growth autocrine signaling of cancer cells via secreted peptides such as mammalian homologs related to bombesin. Some plant extracts (methanol extracts of Ceropegia rupicola, Kniphofia sumarae, Plectranthus cf barbatus, and an aqueous extract of Pavetta longiflora) were found able to inhibit the enzymatic activity of neutral endopeptidase.
NOS Events – The NOS is also responsible for broadcasting live special events, such as breaking news, weddings of the Dutch royal family, and the Dutch elections. (This department was called NOS Actueel, but that name is defunct since on 1 January 2006 NOS RTV changed its corporate identity) Nieuwsuur (Newshour) – Co-produced with the NTR, the NOS provides news and political affairs coverage for NPO 2's nightly hour-long news magazine programme.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
No. Cardarine is GW501516, a PPARδ agonist, while SARMs act on androgen receptors. The two classes are often grouped in informal discussions despite different mechanisms.
No. It has no approved medical indication in any country. Regulatory agencies have not cleared it for treatment or prevention of any condition.
Early clinical work stopped after rodent carcinogenicity findings. Those animal results raised concerns about long-term human risk, although direct human evidence is lacking. The human relevance of the tumors remains an open scientific question.
Cardarine is a common name for the investigational compound GW501516. It acts as a PPARδ agonist and is not approved for human use. It is prohibited in sport.