Everything below concerns PPARδ agonist. We keep the language plain, cite what the science says, and separate well-supported claims from open questions.
Last reviewed on 2025-08-17. Where a claim depends on a specific study, the study is described rather than over-claimed.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound studied for its effects on lipid and glucose metabolism. It functions as an agonist at peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta, or PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences gene expression. The molecule is not a steroid, nor is it a selective androgen receptor modulator. It is also known in research and sports literature as GW-501516 and endurobol. Early laboratory work examined its metabolic activity in cell cultures and animal models.
Activation of PPARδ changes transcription of genes involved in fatty acid transport, mitochondrial function, and skeletal muscle fuel preference. In rodent studies, pharmacological PPARδ activation was associated with increased endurance and altered body composition. These findings generated interest in performance enhancement, but species differences and study designs limit direct extrapolation to humans. Small human trials were conducted in the 2000s and later discontinued. The extent to which cardarine produces similar metabolic or performance effects in people remains an open question.
The compound is typically described as a laboratory compound rather than a therapeutic product. Published reports have explored its role in lipid disorders, insulin sensitivity, and exercise metabolism, yet no major drug regulator has approved it for medical use. Commercial samples sold under the cardarine name may vary in purity and identity. Analytical confirmation is therefore necessary when the material is discussed in scientific or regulatory contexts. Its classification as a prohibited substance in sport further shapes how it is studied and reported.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound developed in the 1990s through research collaborations involving GlaxoSmithKline. It belongs to a class of molecules known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonists. Early studies explored its effects on lipid metabolism and energy expenditure in animal models. The compound was never approved as a human medicine, and clinical development was discontinued. In the years since, it has appeared in fitness and bodybuilding communities as a performance-enhancing substance. Regulatory agencies classify it as an unapproved drug.
PPARδ is a nuclear receptor that regulates gene expression related to fatty acid oxidation, glucose homeostasis, and mitochondrial function. GW501516 binds to this receptor with high affinity and activates downstream signaling in skeletal muscle and other tissues. Animal studies reported increased endurance and altered fuel preference, but human data remain limited and inconsistent. The precise relationship between receptor activation and observed physiological changes is still an area of active investigation. Researchers have also examined whether the compound affects inflammation or cell proliferation. No approved therapeutic indication exists for cardarine.
In laboratory settings, cardarine is studied as a tool compound for probing PPARδ biology. Published experiments often use cell cultures, rodent models, or isolated tissues. Some investigations focus on metabolic effects, while others assess potential risks such as carcinogenicity observed in long-term animal studies. Because human trials are sparse, most knowledge comes from preclinical work and adverse event reports. Scientific literature frequently notes the gap between animal findings and human outcomes. The compound is not a dietary supplement and is not intended for human consumption.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| Chemical class | Synthetic PPARδ agonist | Not a steroid or a selective androgen receptor modulator. |
| Common synonyms | Cardarine, GW501516, GW-501516, endurobol | Names vary by supplier and literature source. |
| Appearance | White to off-white powder | Consistent with many small-molecule research chemicals. |
| Solubility | Low in water; soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Often prepared in organic solvent for laboratory work. |
| Primary target | PPARδ (NR1C2) | Nuclear receptor involved in lipid and energy metabolism. |
Safety concerns emerged from long-term animal studies. In rodents given the compound for extended periods, researchers found an increased incidence of certain cancers, including liver and bladder tumors. These findings contributed to the discontinuation of clinical development. Whether similar risks apply to short-term or low-level exposure in humans is not established, and controlled human safety data are limited. The relevance of high-dose rodent carcinogenicity findings to human use remains a subject of debate.
Human trials of GW501516 were small and short in duration. They examined lipid levels, glucose handling, and other metabolic markers, but the programs were halted after the animal cancer findings. No approved therapeutic product exists, and published human data are insufficient for establishing long-term safety. Reports of use for athletic performance come mainly from non-clinical settings and cannot be verified through controlled trials. Independent testing of products sold as cardarine has found inconsistent purity and labeling.
Products sold as cardarine have been found to contain incorrect compounds, variable amounts, or no active ingredient at all. Independent testing is required to verify identity and purity. Common analytical approaches include high-performance liquid chromatography, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance for structural confirmation. These methods can distinguish GW501516 from related PPAR agonists and from unrelated steroids. For regulators and researchers, such verification is central to interpreting both biological results and adverse event reports.
Cardarine is prohibited in competitive sport under the World Anti-Doping Agency code, where it is classified as a metabolic modulator. It is not approved as a prescription medicine in the United States, European Union, or other major markets. Regulatory action has focused on its presence in sports and in products marketed as research chemicals. Because it has no accepted medical indication, supply is often unregulated. This status creates legal and safety uncertainties for anyone who encounters the substance.
Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the most common matrix, though blood and dried blood spots may also be used in some programs. Detection depends on factors such as dose, timing, metabolism, and the sensitivity of the assay. Published methods describe limits of detection in the low nanogram per milliliter range for related compounds. Exact detection windows are not fixed for all situations and remain an area of ongoing study.
== Awards and honors == 2003: USC Renaissance Scholar 2003: USC Chemistry Alumni Award for Outstanding Undergraduate Research 2006: Student Travel Award for Australian Peptide Society 2008: Poster Prize, Science at the Interface (University of Chicago) 2010: Collier Award, Gordon Conference, Microbial Toxins and Pathogenicity 2012: Vallee Foundation Travel Award 2013: Damon Runyon-Rachleff Innovation Award 2013: Young Chemical Biologist Award, International Chemical Biology Society 2013: Sontag Distinguished Scientist Award 2014: NSF CAREER Award 2015: Sloan Research Fellowship in Chemistry 2015: Novartis Early Career Award in Organic Chemistry 2016: Amgen Young Investigator Award 2018: Eli Lilly Award in Biological Chemistry 2021: Rao Makineni Lectureship, American Peptide Society Source:
=== Contraindications === Treatment should be avoided in the presence of high fever or if the stool is bloody. Treatment is not recommended for people who could have negative effects from rebound constipation. If suspicion exists of diarrhea associated with organisms that can penetrate the intestinal walls, such as E. coli O157:H7 or Salmonella, loperamide is contraindicated as a primary treatment. Loperamide treatment is not used in symptomatic C. difficile infections, as it increases the risk of toxin retention and precipitation of toxic megacolon. Loperamide should be administered with caution to people with liver failure due to reduced first-pass metabolism. Additionally, caution should be used when treating people with advanced HIV/AIDS, as cases of both viral and bacterial toxic megacolon have been reported. If abdominal distension is noted, therapy with loperamide should be discontinued.
The Federal Constitution and the Law of Guidelines and Bases of National Education determine that the union, the states, the Federal District and the municipalities must manage and organize their respective education systems. Each of these public educational systems is responsible for its own maintenance, which manages funds as well as the mechanisms and funding sources. The constitution reserves 25% of the state budget and 18% of federal taxes and municipal taxes for education. According to the IBGE, the literacy rate was 93.4% in 2019, meaning that 11.3 million (6.6% of population) people are still illiterate in the country, with some states such as Rio de Janeiro and Santa Catarina reaching around 97% of literacy rate; functional illiteracy has reached 21.6% of the population. Illiteracy is higher in the Northeast, where 13.87% of the population is illiterate, while the South, has 3.3% illiteracy. Brazil's private institutions tend to be more exclusive and offer better quality education, so many high-income families send their children there. The result is a segregated educational system that reflects extreme income disparities and reinforces social inequality. However, efforts to change this are making impacts. The University of São Paulo is often considered the best in Brazil and Latin America. Of the top 20 Latin American universities, eight are Brazilian; most are public. Attending an institution of higher education is required by Law of Guidelines and Bases of Education. Kindergarten, elementary and medium education are required of all students.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Sleep apnea (sleep apnoea or sleep apnœa in British English) is a sleep-related breathing disorder in which repetitive pauses in breathing, periods of shallow breathing, or collapse of the upper airway during sleep result in poor ventilation and sleep disruption. Each pause in breathing can last for a few seconds to a few minutes and often occurs many times a night. A choking or snorting sound may occur when breathing resumes. Common symptoms include daytime sleepiness, snoring, and non-restorative sleep despite adequate duration of sleep. Because the disorder disrupts normal sleep, those affected may experience sleepiness or feel tired during the day. It is often a chronic condition. Sleep apnea may be categorized as obstructive sleep apnea (OSA), in which breathing is interrupted by a blockage of air flow, central sleep apnea (CSA), in which regular unconscious breath simply stops, or a combination of the two. OSA is the most common form. OSA has four key contributors; these include a narrow, crowded, or collapsible upper airway, an ineffective pharyngeal dilator muscle function during sleep, airway narrowing during sleep, and unstable control of breathing (high loop gain). In CSA, the basic neurological controls for breathing rate malfunction and fail to give the signal to inhale, causing the individual to miss one or more cycles of breathing. If the pause in breathing is long enough, the percentage of oxygen in the circulation can drop to a lower than normal level (hypoxemia) and the concentration of carbon dioxide can build to a higher than normal level (hypercapnia).
== Early life and education == Parsons completed her undergraduate training in biology at the University of Bath. She moved to University College London for her doctoral research, where she studied the impact of mechanical load on the deposition and organisation of dermal fibroblast.
== Methodologies == Before testing samples, the tamper-evident seal is checked for integrity. If it appears to have been tampered with or damaged, the laboratory rejects the sample and does not test it. Next, the sample must be made testable. Urine and oral fluid can be used "as is" for some tests, but other tests require the drugs to be extracted from urine. Strands of hair, patches, and blood must be prepared before testing. Hair is washed in order to eliminate second-hand sources of drugs on the surface of the hair, then the keratin is broken down using enzymes. Blood plasma may need to be separated by centrifuge from blood cells prior to testing. Sweat patches are opened and the sweat collection component is removed and soaked in a solvent to dissolve any drugs present. Laboratory-based drug testing is done in two steps. The first step is the screening test, which is an immunoassay based test applied to all samples. The second step, known as the confirmation test, is usually undertaken by a laboratory using highly specific chromatographic techniques and only applied to samples that test positive during the screening test. Screening tests are usually done by immunoassay (EMIT, ELISA, and RIA are the most common). A "dipstick" drug testing method which could provide screening test capabilities to field investigators has been developed at the University of Illinois. After a suspected positive sample is detected during screening, the sample is tested using a confirmation test. Samples that are negative on the screening test are discarded and reported as negative.
Isonicotinamide (pyridine-4-carboxamide) is the amide form of isonicotinic acid. It is an isomer of nicotinamide, which has the carboxamide group in the 3-position. It is soluble in water (191 g/L), and is also soluble in ethanol, DMSO, methanol, chloroform, chloroform/methanol mixtures, and dioxane (10 mg/L). This compound is used for material synthesis. Compounds in which the amide nitrogen is connected to another, and then doubly-bonded, are called isonicotinoylhydrazones.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
There are no widely accepted functions for the resulting truncated RNA transcripts. However, a study in 1981 found evidence that there was a relationship between the number of abortive transcripts produced and the time until long RNA strands are successfully produced. When RNA polymerase undergoes abortive transcription in the presence of ATP, UTP, and GTP, a complex is formed that has a much lower capacity for abortive recycling and a much higher rate of synthesis of the full-length RNA transcript. A study in 2010 found evidence that these truncated transcripts inhibit termination of RNA synthesis by a RNA hairpin-dependent intrinsic terminator. Oligonucleotide Eukaryotic transcription Bacterial transcription
20983Bi + 6428Ni → 272111 + 10n This reaction had previously been conducted at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna (then in the Soviet Union) in 1986, but no atoms of 272111 had then been observed. In 2001, the IUPAC/IUPAP Joint Working Party (JWP) concluded that there was insufficient evidence for the discovery at that time. The GSI team repeated their experiment in 2002 and detected three more atoms. In their 2003 report, the JWP decided that the GSI team should be acknowledged for the discovery of this element.
=== Recreational === Desomorphine abuse in Russia attracted international attention in 2010 due to an increase in clandestine production, presumably due to its relatively simple synthesis from codeine available over the counter. Abuse of homemade desomorphine was first reported in Siberia in 2003 when Russia started a major crackdown on heroin production and trafficking, but has since spread throughout Russia and the neighboring former soviet republics. The drug can be made from codeine and iodine derived from over-the-counter medications and red phosphorus from match strikers, in a process similar to the manufacturing of methamphetamine from pseudoephedrine. Like methamphetamine, desomorphine made this way is often contaminated with various agents. The street name in Russia for homemade desomorphine is krokodil (Russian: крокодил, crocodile), possibly related to the chemical name of the precursor α-chlorocodide, or the resemblance of the skin damage caused by the drug to a crocodile's leather. Due to difficulties in procuring heroin, combined with easy and cheap access to over-the-counter pharmacy products containing codeine in Russia, use of krokodil increased until 2012. In 2012 the Russian federal government introduced new restrictions for the sale of codeine-containing medications. This policy change diminished but did not extinguish krokodil use in Russia. It has been estimated that around 100,000 people use krokodil in Russia and around 20,000 in Ukraine.
7027/2022, which raises to ₲ 7000 million the reward for information on the whereabouts of the kidnapped citizens Edelio Morínigo, Félix Urbieta, and Óscar Denis. The decree authorizes the Ministry of the Interior to make partial or total payments, depending on the quality and truthfulness of the information, through confidential funds. The rule establishes that any citizen may provide useful information, except public officials of security and justice institutions, or their relatives up to the fifth degree of consanguinity. Confidentiality of sources is guaranteed, and false information is to be reported to the Public Ministry.
The genus Oenococcus has one main member involved in winemaking, O. oeni, once known as Leuconostoc oeni. Despite having the name Oenococcus, under the microscope, the bacterium has a bacillus (shape) rod shape. The bacteria is a Gram-positive, facultative anaerobe that can utilize some oxygen for aerobic respiration but usually produces cellular energy through fermentation. O. oeni is a heterofermenter that creates multiple end products from the use of glucose with D-lactic acid and carbon dioxide being produced in roughly equal amounts to either ethanol or acetate. In reductive conditions (such as near the end of alcoholic fermentation), the third end product is usually ethanol while in slightly oxidative (such as early in alcohol fermentation or in an untopped barrel), the bacteria are more likely to produce acetate. Some O. oeni strains can use fructose to create mannitol (which can lead to wine fault known as mannitol taint), while many other strains can break down the amino acid arginine (which can be present in the wine that is resting on the lees after fermentation from the autolysis of dead yeast cells) into ammonia. In addition to the hexose glucose and fructose sugars, most strains of O. oeni can use the residual pentose sugars left behind from yeast fermentation including L-arabinose and ribose. Only around 45% of O. oeni strains can ferment sucrose (the form of sugar usually added for chaptalization that gets converted by yeast into glucose and fructose). Winemakers tend to prefer O. oeni for several reasons.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic PPARδ agonist. It is not a steroid or a selective androgen receptor modulator. It was developed and studied as a research compound for metabolic pathways.
It binds to and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that regulates genes related to fatty acid oxidation and energy use. This activation alters transcription in tissues such as skeletal muscle and liver. The full range of downstream effects in humans is not fully established.
No, cardarine is not known to occur naturally in plants, animals, or humans. It is a synthetic molecule produced for laboratory research. Products labeled as cardarine should therefore be treated as manufactured chemicals with variable purity.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic PPARδ agonist developed for research. It has not been approved as a medication in any country. It is classified as an unapproved drug and a prohibited substance in sport.