If you have been reading about PPARδ agonist and want a single page that covers the useful parts, this is it: definitions, context, how it is studied, and the questions that come up repeatedly.
Updated 2026-03-26. Numbers and descriptions here follow the published literature rather than marketing material.
In laboratory settings, cardarine is studied as a tool compound for probing PPARδ biology. Published experiments often use cell cultures, rodent models, or isolated tissues. Some investigations focus on metabolic effects, while others assess potential risks such as carcinogenicity observed in long-term animal studies. Because human trials are sparse, most knowledge comes from preclinical work and adverse event reports. Scientific literature frequently notes the gap between animal findings and human outcomes. The compound is not a dietary supplement and is not intended for human consumption.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound developed in the 1990s through research collaborations involving GlaxoSmithKline. It belongs to a class of molecules known as peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta agonists. Early studies explored its effects on lipid metabolism and energy expenditure in animal models. The compound was never approved as a human medicine, and clinical development was discontinued. In the years since, it has appeared in fitness and bodybuilding communities as a performance-enhancing substance. Regulatory agencies classify it as an unapproved drug.
Legal status varies by country. In some places, cardarine is controlled under medicines or psychoactive substances laws; in others, it may be sold with minimal oversight as a research chemical. Customs agencies have intercepted shipments, and several national health agencies have issued warnings about products marketed for bodybuilding or performance enhancement. The lack of a standardized pharmaceutical supply means identity, purity, and contamination levels can differ widely between samples. These factors make cardarine a regulatory and public health concern rather than a conventional prescription drug.
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic compound first described in the 1990s as a selective agonist of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta. It was studied in preclinical models for metabolic and cardiovascular conditions, but it has not been approved as a medicine in the United States, Europe, or other major jurisdictions. Retail products labeled as cardarine are generally research chemicals or supplements, not pharmaceutical formulations. Because human safety and efficacy data remain limited, regulatory agencies treat it as an unapproved substance rather than a therapeutic product.
| Property | Value | Notes |
|---|---|---|
| CAS Registry Number | 317318-70-0 | Unique identifier for the compound. |
| Chemical class | PPARδ agonist | Synthetic ligand for peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor delta. |
| Appearance | White to off-white solid | Typical form of research-grade material. |
| Solubility | Soluble in DMSO and ethanol | Poorly soluble in water. |
| Typical storage | -20°C | Recommended for long-term storage of stock solutions. |
Published human data are sparse and mostly come from early-phase trials. Those studies examined short-term changes in lipids, glucose, and exercise capacity, but they were not large enough to establish efficacy or long-term safety. Some animal experiments reported increased running endurance, yet such findings do not prove a performance benefit in people. Anti-doping laboratories detect GW501516 and its metabolites in urine or blood using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Detection windows depend on dose, sample type, and individual metabolism. The method is sensitive enough to identify trace residues in tested samples.
Laboratory handling focuses on identity, purity, and stability. Reference standards are typically stored cold and dry, protected from light, because solutions can degrade over time. Analytical checks may use high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection or mass spectrometry. Impurities and related substances can be separated chromatographically and compared with a known standard. Because cardarine is not an approved drug, compendial monographs are absent, and laboratories often rely on in-house methods. Reported purity varies among unregulated products and should not be assumed from a label.
GW501516 binds and activates PPARδ, a nuclear receptor that influences transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy use. Activation shifts some metabolic pathways in preclinical models, which is why the compound has been studied for lipid disorders and exercise-related endpoints. The exact downstream effects in humans are incompletely mapped. PPARδ is expressed in many tissues, including skeletal muscle, liver, and adipose tissue, so broad activation may have varied consequences. Researchers continue to examine how selective or partial activation might alter the balance between benefits and risks.
Anti-doping laboratories identify GW501516 and its metabolites using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is the usual matrix, and detection can occur after the parent compound has cleared from blood. The exact detection window depends on dose, formulation, individual metabolism, and assay sensitivity. Because the compound is prohibited at all times, athletes are subject to testing in and out of competition. Analytical methods continue to improve as new metabolites and designer analogs are characterized.
GW501516 acts as a ligand for PPAR delta, a nuclear receptor that regulates transcription of genes involved in fatty acid oxidation and energy use. Activation of this receptor in skeletal muscle shifts metabolism toward fat burning in animal models. The compound does not burn fat directly; it changes gene expression over hours to days. Researchers study it to understand metabolic flexibility and exercise adaptation. Effects observed in rodents are not automatically expected in humans.
Detection of GW501516 in biological samples generally relies on liquid chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry. Urine is a common matrix in anti-doping analysis, while blood or plasma may be used in research settings. Sample preparation can involve enzymatic hydrolysis, protein precipitation, or solid-phase extraction before instrumental analysis. Because the compound undergoes metabolism, assays may target the parent molecule, one or more metabolites, or both. Detection windows are not fixed; they depend on factors such as dose, route, individual metabolism, and assay sensitivity. Reference standards are required for accurate identification and quantification.
Handling and quality assessment of cardarine reference material follow general laboratory practices for poorly characterized compounds. It typically appears as a white to off-white powder and is sparingly soluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as dimethyl sulfoxide and ethanol. Storage recommendations usually specify a cool, dry, dark place, with long-term storage at low temperature and desiccation. Purity may be checked by high-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection, while identity is confirmed by mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance. No pharmacopeial monograph exists, so reported purity and stability depend on the supplier’s methods.
== Monitoring and improvement == Stewardship programs use laboratory utilization data to identify opportunities for improvement and evaluate interventions. Monitoring may include the appropriateness of test orders, retrieval of results, interpretation of results, test volumes, costs, and the effects of individual interventions. Broader measures of impact may include blood collection volumes, length of stay, readmission, morbidity, and mortality. Data-driven approaches can also use implementation science to identify behavioral and organizational factors that influence laboratory test use and to select interventions suited to those factors. Laboratory stewardship programs use multidisciplinary teams and laboratory utilization data to identify inappropriate testing and opportunities for improvement, implement interventions, and assess their effects. Programs can be organized differently depending on institutional priorities, available resources, and the clinical setting. Laboratory stewardship has also been discussed as a means of addressing health equity in laboratory testing.
=== Traditional methods === Mazatec shamans crush the leaves to extract leaf juices from about 20 to 80 or more fresh leaves (i.e. about 50–200 g or 2–7 oz). They usually mix these juices with water to create an infusion or 'tea' which they drink to induce visions in ritual healing ceremonies. Chewing and swallowing a large number of fresh leaves is the other Mazatec method. Oral consumption of the leaf makes the effects come on more slowly, over a period of 10 to 20 minutes. The experience, from the onset of effects, lasts from about 30 minutes up to one and a half hours. Doses for chewing vastly exceed doses used for smoking. By calculating the concentrations per leaf ("an average concentration of 2.45 mg per gram" of leaf), the average weight per leaf ("about 50 g" per 20 leaves, or 2.5 g/leaf), and the standard dose for chewing (about 8–28 leaves), the doses can range from about 50 mg to 172 mg.
==== Solvent casting and particulate leaching ==== Solvent casting and particulate leaching (SCPL) allows for the preparation of structures with regular porosity, but with limited thickness. First, the polymer is dissolved into a suitable organic solvent (e.g. polylactic acid could be dissolved into dichloromethane), then the solution is cast into a mold filled with porogen particles. Such porogen can be an inorganic salt like sodium chloride, crystals of saccharose, and gelatin or paraffin spheres. The size of the porogen particles will affect the size of the scaffold pores, while the polymer to porogen ratio is directly correlated to the amount of porosity of the final structure. After the polymer solution has been cast the solvent is allowed to fully evaporate, then the composite structure in the mold is immersed in a bath of a liquid suitable for dissolving the porogen: water in the case of sodium chloride, saccharose and gelatin or an aliphatic solvent like hexane for use with paraffin. Once the porogen has been fully dissolved, a porous structure is obtained. Other than the small thickness range that can be obtained, another drawback of SCPL lies in its use of organic solvents which must be fully removed to avoid any possible damage to the cells seeded on the scaffold.
3-(Dimethylaminomethylidene)amino-3H-1,2,4-dithiazole-3-thione, DDTT (3) provides rapid kinetics of sulfurization and high stability in solution. The reagent is available from several sources. 3H-1,2-benzodithiol-3-one 1,1-dioxide (4) also known as Beaucage reagent displays a better solubility in acetonitrile and short reaction times. However, the reagent is of limited stability in solution and is less efficient in sulfurizing RNA linkages. N,N,N'N'-Tetraethylthiuram disulfide (TETD) is soluble in acetonitrile and is commercially available. However, the sulfurization reaction of an internucleosidic DNA linkage with TETD requires 15 min, which is more than 10 times as slow as that with compounds 3 and 4.
Aroa Biosurgery Limited (formerly Mesynthes Limited) is a regenerative medicine company that develops, manufactures and distributes products for wound healing and soft tissue reconstruction. Aroa Biosurgery is headquartered in Auckland, New Zealand with a US office in San Diego, CA, and is listed on the Australian Securities Exchange (ASX: ARX). The company, originally known as Mesynthes Limited, was founded in 2008 by Veterinarian Surgeon Dr Brian Ward (BVSc). The company develops and commercializes products based on its proprietary ovine forestomach matrix technology platform with products in wound healing (Endoform, Natural, Endoform, Antimicrobial and Symphony) as well as plastics and reconstructive surgery (Myriad Matrix, Myriad Forme, Myriad Morcells, Ovitex PRS) and repair of hernia (Ovitex and Myriad Ultra).
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
== Production == StAR is a mitochondrial protein that is rapidly synthesized in response to stimulation of the cell to produce steroid. Hormones that stimulate its production depend on the cell type and include luteinizing hormone (LH), ACTH and angiotensin II. At the cellular level, StAR is synthesized typically in response to activation of the cAMP second messenger system, although other systems can be involved even independently of cAMP. StAR has thus far been found in all tissues that can produce steroids, including the adrenal cortex, the gonads, the brain and the nonhuman placenta. One known exception is the human placenta. Substances that suppress StAR activity, like those listed below, can cause endocrine disrupting effects, including altered steroid hormone levels and fertility.
Members of the Arcobacter genus are the primary early colonizers (<24 months). Sulfurospirillum genus members colonize at ~50 months, during the transitional stages of organic carbon breakdown. The Sulfurimonas genus dominates at >140 months, and are key players in its symbiosis with the Osedax host. The Sulfurimonas genus in particular protects the Osedax worms from potentially harmful by-products produced at >140 months of the whale fall degradation. The Sulfurimonas bacteria house the type II and IV sulfide:quinone oxidoreductase genes that encode enzymes to oxidize and assimilate sulfide. These reactions prevent the host from absorbing toxic by-products across the epithelial barrier.
Pizza Hut, LLC is an American multinational pizza restaurant chain and international franchise founded in 1958 in Wichita, Kansas, by brothers Dan and Frank Carney. The chain, headquartered in Plano, Texas alongside KFC, operates 19,974 restaurants worldwide as of 2025. While studying at Wichita State University, the Carneys opened their first location, which quickly expanded to six outlets within a year. The brand began franchising in 1959, and its distinctive building style was designed by Chicagoan architect George Lindstrom in 1963. Pizza Hut experienced significant growth, including the acquisition by PepsiCo in 1977, followed by a spin-off into Tricon Global Restaurants, Inc., later renamed Yum! Brands in 2002, who are the former owners, and later, the acquisition by LongRange Capital and Yum China in 2026.
=== Academia === Prior to his postdoctoral fellowship, Kopeček served as the research scientific officer for the Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry at the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences from 1965 to 1967. He then served in the same capacity after his postdoctoral fellowship at the National Research Council of Canada until 1972, when he became the head of the Laboratory of Medical Polymers at the Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry from 1972 to 1980. Kopeček then became head of the Laboratory of Biodegradable Polymers until 1988. In 1986, Kopeček became co-director for the Center of Controlled Chemical Delivery of Utah and was a visiting professor. From 1989, he was professor of bioengineering and professor of pharmaceutics and pharmaceutical chemistry. As of 2002, Kopeček has been a distinguished professor in both pharmaceutical chemistry and biomedical engineering. In 2017, he became the director for the Center of Controlled Chemical Delivery at the University of Utah.
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
TDS spectrum 1 and 2 are typical examples of a TPD measurement. Both are examples of NO desorbing from a single crystal in high vacuum. The crystal was mounted on a titanium filament and heated with current. The desorbing NO was measured using a mass spectrometer monitoring the atomic mass of 30. Before 1990 analysis of a TPD spectrum was usually done using a so-called simplified method; the "Redhead" method, assuming the exponential prefactor and the desorption energy to be independent of the surface coverage. After 1990 and with use of computer algorithms TDS spectra were analyzed using the "complete analysis method" or the "leading edge method". These methods assume the exponential prefactor and the desorption energy to be dependent of the surface coverage. Several available methods of analyzing TDS are described and compared in an article by A.M. de JONG and J.W. NIEMANTSVERDRIET. During parameter optimization/estimation, using the integral has been found to create a more well behaved objective function than the differential.
Zenobi-Wong works in the area of tissue engineering, in particular for cartilage regeneration. She develops functional biomaterials which mimic the extracellular matrix. The biofabrication techniques used to develop these materials include electrospinning, casting, two-photon polymerization and bioprinting. Zenobi-Wong holds four licensed patents in the fields of tissue engineering, tissue engineering techniques, and gene expression assays. She was one of the originators of the MSc Biomedical Engineering program at ETH Zürich, and developed several graduate level courses in tissue engineering and biomedical engineering. Zenobi-Wong currently serves as President of the Swiss Society for Biomaterials and Regenerative Medicine, and as secretary general of the International Society of Biofabrication. ETH Zürich Department of Health Sciences and Technology - Tissue Engineering and Biofabrication Group Marcy Zenobi-Wong publications indexed by Google Scholar
The toxin has two subunits—designated A (mol. wt. 32000 Da) and B (mol. wt. 7700 Da)—and is one of the AB5 toxins. The B subunit is a pentamer that binds to specific glycolipids on the host cell, specifically globotriaosylceramide (Gb3). Following this, the A subunit is internalised and cleaved into two parts. The A1 component then binds to the ribosome, disrupting protein synthesis. Stx-2 has been found to be about 400 times more toxic (as quantified by LD50 in mice) than Stx-1. Gb3 is, for unknown reasons, present in greater amounts in renal epithelial tissues, to which the renal toxicity of Shiga toxin may be attributed. Gb3 is also found in central nervous system neurons and endothelium, which may lead to neurotoxicity. Stx-2 is also known to increase the expression of its receptor GB3 and cause neuronal dysfunctions. 2011 German E. coli outbreak Cholera toxin Enterotoxin Pertussis toxin
Transcription of mRNA: Synthesis begins with turning on genes associated with the formation of a particular alpha peptide (typically alpha 1, 2 or 3). About 45 genes are associated with collagen formation, each coding for a specific mRNA sequence, and are typically named with the "COL" prefix. These 45 genes encode the 28 collagen types described in vertebrates. Pre-pro-peptide formation: The created mRNA exits the cell nucleus into the cytoplasm. There, it links with the ribosomal subunits and is translated into a peptide. The peptide goes into the endoplasmic reticulum for post-translational processing. It is directed there by a signal recognition particle on the endoplasmic reticulum, which recognizes the peptide's N-terminal signal sequence (the early part of the sequence). The processed product is a pre-pro-peptide called preprocollagen. Pro-collagen formation: Three modifications of the pre-pro-peptide form the alpha peptide: The signal peptide on the N-terminal is removed. This molecule is called 'propeptide.' Lysines and prolines are hydroxylated by the enzymes 'prolyl hydroxylase' and 'lysyl hydroxylase', producing hydroxyproline and hydroxylysine. This helps in cross-linking the alpha peptides. This enzymatic step requires vitamin C as a cofactor. In scurvy, the lack of hydroxylation of prolines and lysines causes a looser triple helix (which is formed by three alpha peptides). Glycosylation occurs by adding either glucose or galactose monomers onto the hydroxyl groups that were placed onto lysines, but not on prolines.
Tendons are subject to many types of injuries. There are various forms of tendinopathies or tendon injuries due to overuse. These types of injuries generally result in inflammation and degeneration or weakening of the tendons, which may eventually lead to tendon rupture. Tendinopathies can be caused by a number of factors relating to the tendon extracellular matrix (ECM), and their classification has been difficult because their symptoms and histopathology often are similar. Types of tendinopathy include:
Sources: en.wikipedia.org
Cardarine is a common name for GW501516, a synthetic PPARδ agonist developed for research. It has not been approved as a medication in any country. It is classified as an unapproved drug and a prohibited substance in sport.
No. Cardarine is not an anabolic steroid; it belongs to a different chemical class that targets PPARδ. Steroids act primarily through androgen receptors, while cardarine acts through a nuclear receptor involved in metabolism.
Some rodent studies reported increased endurance and changes in fat metabolism after cardarine exposure. Long-term studies in animals also raised concerns about cancer in certain tissues. Human trial data are limited, so these findings cannot be directly translated to people.
No. Major drug regulators have not approved GW501516 for treating any medical condition. Products sold as cardarine are typically unapproved research chemicals or supplements, so their contents and safety are not assured.